Mayan Civilization Essays - Maya Classic Period, Maya Civilization

Mayan Civilization Mayan Civilization INTRODUCTION The Mayan Civilization was an Ancient Native American civilization that grew to be one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas. The people known as the Maya lived in the region that is now eastern and southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and western Honduras. The Maya built massive stone pyramids, temples, and sculpture and accomplished complex achievements in mathematics and astronomy, which were recorded in hieroglyphs. After 900 the Maya mysteriously disappeared from the southern lowlands of Guatemala. They later reappeared in the north on the Yucatn Peninsula and continued to dominate the area until the Spanish conquest. Descendants of the Maya still form a large part of the population of the region. Although many have acquired Spanish ways, a significant number of modern Maya maintain ancient ethnic customs. PRE-CLASSIC PERIOD The Pre-classic period is the span of time in which the foundation of the more modern Mayan civilization was formed. The people went through huge developments in society and built up strength. Early Mayans were farmers and helped the community in keeping up the fields. They first used sticks to punch holes in the ground, but later, assumed more advanced farming techniques. Their main crops included maize (corn), beans, squash, avocados, chili peppers, pineapples, papayas, and cacao, which was made into a chocolate drink with water and hot chilies. Hunting and fishing were also a source of food for the early Mayans. They often hunted rabbits, deer, and turkeys, which were made into stews. When they were not hunting, fishing, or working in the fields, Mayan men and women took part in crafting useful items, such as stone tools, clay figurines, jade carvings, ropes, baskets, and mats. Women specialized in making clothing, such as ponchos, loincloths, and skirts. Like other ancient farming peoples, the early Maya worshipped agricultural gods, such as the rain god and, later, the corn god. Eventually they developed the belief that gods controlled events in each day, month, and year, and that they had to make offerings to win the gods' favor. Maya astronomers observed the movements of the sun, moon, and planets, made astronomical calculations, and devised almanacs. The astronomers' observations were used to divine auspicious moments for many different kinds of activity, from farming to warfare. Rulers and nobles directed the commoners in building major settlements. Pyramid-shaped mounds of rubble topped with altars or thatched temples sat in the center of these settlements, and priests performed sacrifices to the gods on them. As the Pre-classic period progressed, the Maya increasingly used stone in building. Both nobles and commoners lived in extended family compounds. During the Pre-classic period the basic patterns of ancient Maya life were established. However, the period was not simply a rehearsal for the Classic period but a time of spectacular achievements. CLASSIC PERIOD Classic Maya civilization became more complex as the population increased and centers in the highlands and the lowlands engaged in both cooperation and competition with each other. Trade and warfare were very important to cultural growth and development. Societies became more complex, with distinct social classes developing. Under the direction of their kings, who also performed as priests, the centers of the lowland Maya became densely populated jungle cities with vast stone and masonry temple and palace complexes. During the Classic period, warfare was conducted on a fairly limited, primarily ceremonial scale. Maya rulers, who were often depicted on carved stone monuments, carrying weapons, attempted to capture and sacrifice one another for ritual and political purposes. The rulers often destroyed parts of some cities, but the destruction was directed mostly at temples in the ceremonial precincts; it had little or no impact on the economy or population of a city as a whole. Some city-states did occasionally conquer others, but this was not a common occurrence until very late in the Classic period when lowland civilization had begun to disintegrate. Until that time, the most common pattern of Maya warfare seems to have consisted of raids employing rapid attacks and retreats by relatively small numbers of warriors, most of who were probably nobles. Lowland Maya centers were true cities with large resident populations of commoners who sustained the ruling elites through payments of tribute in goods and labor. They built temples, palaces, courtyards, water reservoirs, and causeways. Sculptors carved stelae, which recorded information about the rulers, their family and political histories, and often included exaggerated statements about their conquests of other city-states. RELIGION Mayan religion consisted of a wide range of diverse and varied supernatural beings or deities. They considered Hunab Ku to be the chief god and creator of the world, followed by other varied gods, including Itzamna, the lord of the heavens;

Achondroplasia essays

Achondroplasia essays Achondroplasia is an autosomal dominant trait, however, it has a very high spontaneous rate of mutation (about 90%). It is the result from a single point mutation in Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (FGFR3). In 97% of the patients, there is a Glycine to Arginine substitution at position 380 (also G380R and Gly380Arg) within the FGFR-3 transmembrane domain, resulting from a G to A point mutation at nucleotide 1138. FGFR-3 is a negative regulator of bone growth. Binding of fibroblast growth factors to the FGFR-3 receptor stimulates its tyrosine kinase activity in the cell, which leads to receptor over-activation. This FGF receptor is expressed by chondrocytes (Mature cartilage cells embedded in lacunae within the cartilage matrix) in the growth plate of developing long bones. Tyrosine kinase activates a signal transduction pathway that regulates enchondral ossification (formation of bone from cartilaginous tissue) by both inhibiting cell division and stimulating cell maturatio n and differentiation. Mutations in the FGFR-3 gene give rise to activation of the receptor in the absence of growth factors, thus causing abnormal long bone development. FGFR-3 mutations can be interpreted as gain-of-function mutations that activate the fundamentally negative growth control exerted by the FGFR-3 pathway. Position and type of mutation in the FGFR-3 gene determine the extent of over-activation and thus the severity of the skeletal abnormality. Homozygous achondroplasia, caused by the presence of two mutant alleles at nucleotide 1138 of the FGFR3 gene, is a severe disorder with radiological changes qualitatively different from those of achondroplasia. Early death results from respiratory insufficiency due to the small thoracic cage and neurological deficit from spinal stenosis. The 4.4kb cDNA contains an open reading frame of 2520 nucleotides, encoding a 840 residue protein. The open reading frame was followed by a 3' untranslated ...

Managerial decisions Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Managerial decisions - Term Paper Example More revenue will be generated at a lower cost of production, which is an additional advantage to the company. Contract workers are paid less money than full time employees, and this will be a great advantage to the company as a whole. Introduction According to Kotler & Armstrong (2004), the elements of supply and demand in business are interrelated, and in some cases, they also affect the price of a certain market offering. However, in this case it is assumed that the price is constant and the aim is to establish how supply can be increased in order to meet the rising demand of certain goods without offsetting the prevailing market trends. Economically, if the demand for a certain product increases, then its supply also increases. This relationship will be illustrated using a supply curve later in the paper. Therefore, this paper seeks to explain in detail the relationship between supply and demand in detail and show how this can affect managerial decisions. In some cases, managers need to make decisions that do not affect the viability of the organization in the long run, trying to meet the rising demand for a certain product. ... products offered in the market remains the same, but this issue of the rising demand has to be addressed in order to cater for the needs of customers, who are valuable to the organization. It is also assumed that this increase in demand may not be permanent, and hence the need to put effective measures that do not impact negatively on the operations of the organization. Therefore, the main question to be answered in this case is: Should our company hire temporary or hire new workers to handle the increase in demand for our products? Essentially, there is a need to maintain production costs at a lower level while increasing the supply of the product offered by the company. This is meant to ensure that the company remains viable and that it is also able to operate profitably since the price is not going to change in this particular case. The only thing that will change is the supply of the products offered. An increase in supply entails that more sales are likely to be generated. This also means that more revenue will be realized from the operations of the organization. As such, a holistic approach has to be taken in order to make sure that the workers who are going to be hired will not greatly increase the operational costs, which may impact the viability of the organization. Factors or costs There are various costs that need to be taken into consideration when making managerial decisions that have economic implications on the operations of the organization. Hiring temporary workers impliedly means that the company will not incur a lot of labour costs because of the following reasons: The organization has the autonomy to determine the wage rate of the contract workers. The company does not have the burden of paying fixed salaries to these workers since this may increase

Human Resources Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Human Resources Strategies - Essay Example Therefore, the employee should not come under knowledge about how their pay is determined but should be aware that what performance comes under requirement to obtain a given raise in the wage amount. (Cascio, 2006) 360-Degree Feedback is one of the development tools that come under practice by the HR team that facilitates in measuring the employee performance and recognize the strengths and weaknesses that can help the employee be more productive and effective. However, according to the personal viewpoint, each job description must come under evaluation on different dimensions. This is because the every job description has different set of responsibilities and it would be inequitable and unfair to evaluate or assess them on the same set of performance dimensions. In addition, at GE/Durham, the managers are responsible only for making a dozen major decisions while the team members are liable to make all the other decisions or their inputs are the basis of the decisions. With respect to the case study, GE/Durham is an organization where the team members have their prime focus on making perfect jet engines correctly, quickly and cheaply, therefore, the contents of the 360-Degree appraisal must depend upon problem solving, planning, and organizing, teamwork, communication, and leadership effectiveness. While looking at the working style of GE/Durham, the rating format in order to make the appraisal ratings must include open-ended questions to have the written feedbacks. Apart from few open-ended questions, multiple choice questions and 5-point rating scale  questions would also be beneficial. For members of the nine production teams working at GE/Durham, performance assessments must come under evaluation by Paula Sims, as she is the plant manager of the team members. Although the evaluation would come under assessment from the feedbacks provided by the peers, the managers, and direct reports Sims is the key responsible person

Neural Networks Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Neural Networks - Movie Review Example able to check their payload; the load capacity they can contain in any operation and there be able to know the maximum load beyond which it fails or develop dramatic loss in accuracy. In the story, it is very clear that through neural networks robots can be controlled remotely through gestures and be directed to perform some tasks depending their interpretation of those gestures or symbols shown. Neural networks have been used for robot control over long time now and have evolved to high levels of control that are intricate. Firstly, a robot can be learn through the neural networks; this is achieved a neural network brain for the robot. An example of a good robot learning task is navigational tasks that may include learning to detect objects or obstacles like a wall and to move about a space in a defined path. Through the learning, the robots can develop maps in their ‘brains’ for the environment they are in after being taught. This includes recognizing as well as being able to predict behaviors and upcoming obstacles on their paths through voice recognition and may be light detecting sensors within them. Critical decision-making can be inculcated in robots by neural networks where it is supposed to weigh the negative and positive effects of its actions depending the outcomes of the action it is about to take. This shows the analytical characteristics involved and measurement of the levels of effects caused by the activities undertaken by the robots. For example, given more than one task to perform which have different slack times to be finished on their due dates, the robot will determine the best option by choosing the task with the least slack times to be performed first. Another area where the neural networks have been used is in the control of the robots movements in the joints as it performs it tasks. It can offer a continuous movement or a discontinuous movement that is stepped. Depending on the pace of the tasks it is expected to perform the robot is

Effect of Medicinal Plant Extracts on Alzheimers Disease

Effect of Medicinal Plant Extracts on Alzheimers Disease Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease which causes a lethal twist in the structural integrity, and a roadblock in the function of brain, this eventually channel the situation to degeneration and shrinkage of brain, and override the control of brain over other parts of the body, and comes to the final closing remark of the disease- death. Studies done on the topic have corroborated that the disease is not reversible, and the only patch of hope is slowing down its progress. But as the disease advances through mid stage and evolves into severe AD, the condition of patient becomes pathetic and care giving becomes more painful. Studies have reported that notable symptoms of AD are seen only after 60 years of age, even though the disease has started before that. Initial symptoms are loss of short term memory- being forgetful about the recent events, and gradually over a period of time patient seems more absent –minded about the environment, things which are chemically etched in the long term memory begins to be erased, and the final stage starts pushing the patient into severe AD which is tremendously pathetic. Studies have proved that loss of function of neurons is the cause of AD. A closer look into the aspect revealed a complex set of events that precede the neuronal degeneration- oxidative stress and imbalance in homeostasis, formation of roadblocks in communication, falling apart of integrity and death of neurons. This enabled to go beyond the findings of superficial studies done and hypothesis developed, and helped to delve much deeper into the inner workings and mechanism of the disease. Hypotheses developed to explain mechanism of AD are: amyloid cascade hypothesis, cholinergic hypothesis and tau hypothesis. Amyloid cascade hypothesis says, APP- Amyloid Precursor Protein, a transmembrane protein involved in main roles of growth, survival and repair of nerve cells- is snipped at wrong places by an enzyme called secretase, leading to the formation of amyloid ÃŽ ² peptides which accumulates to form plaques- amyloid plaques- and bind to synapses blocking the communication channel, event ually causes memory loss. According to cholinergic hypothesis, downward drift in the levels of acetylcholine in brain is the cause for Alzheimer’s disease. Loss of function of cholinergic neurons was found in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Shift in the level of acetylcholine happens due to the lack of two enzymes involved in synthesis and breaking down of acetylcholine. This will lead to loss of function of neurons; brain’s functionality falls apart, and eventually leads to symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Tau hypothesis approaches the problem in another perspective, tau protein- a protein associated with microtubules in nerve cells- gets hyperphosphorylated, this enables cross linking among tau protein units, and they back off from being attached to the microtubules. This causes loss of structural integrity of nerve cells, and they collapse and clump to form tangles- neurofibrillary tangles. Studies conducted focusing on the inner workings of these hypoth esis have found that oxidative stress is the reason that enhances plaque and tangle formation, repair mechanisms in cells are unable to solve the situation as the oligomer formation and cross linking are predominantly made by non peptide bonds. In another study, amyloid ÃŽ ² peptides have shown close relation with some causes of mad cow disease. Studies related to genetics of AD have found the link between APOE gene on chromosome 21 and the disease. APOE gene codes for apolipoprotein, and one among its functions is breaking down of APP. APOE has variants, APOEÃŽ µ4 is the one which codes for less active protein whose capacity to break down APP is sluggish. People with this variant gene are more tend to develop AD in later stages of life, and any abnormality related to chromosome 21 also results in AD over a period of time. To know more about the mechanism of disease and its attachment to oxidative stress, further studies have done from different angles, and all the studies have come to a common point, the findings from all the studies stitched together gave a complex and elaborate picture about the mechanism of the disease. Free radical damage leads to oxidation of products in cell. Oxidation leads to new end products of glycation, nitration, lipid peroxidation, and oxidation of nucleic acids. These new end products chemically modify other proteins and compartments inside the cell. Oxidized derivatives impede with the channel of trace elements, and imbalances their homeostasis, and enables proteins like tau to form non peptide cross linking. In response to changes cell up the levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)- an antioxidant enzyme to mitigate the bad effects from free radical damage- but rapid heaping up of neurotoxic substances goes beyond control leading to severe imbalances, blockage of communicati on channels, and eventually death of neuron. Since mitochondria is the main source of free radicals and oxidative precursors. Certain deletions in mtDNA resulted in change in normal levels and rates of metabolism and production of free radicals. Free radicals formed in mitochondria are short lived and they do not have the ability to cross membrane and reach cytoplasm to cause damage, this led studies in a new direction and found free radicals- OH from cytoplasm- can attack guanidine in RNAs in cytoplasm and this both can cross the membrane and reach into mitochondria, and cause imbalance and production of more stable H2O2 radicals which can come to cytoplasm and react with the channel of trace elements, and starts the primary events for the major causes for AD to come into being. AD starts at neocortex area of brain, and as the neurons die and rupture, the neurotoxic substances- plaques, free radicals, tangles, etc. pervade the nearby nerve cells, and the cycle goes on and graduall y covers the brain and makes it slip out of its normal being. Oxidative stress in brain leads to degeneration of neurons, which eventually leads to dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This oxidative stress in brain can be slowed down or reversed- to a small extent- using drugs to treat AD or using antioxidant capacity of some medicinal plants. In this study rats were arranged into seven groups, and different groups were treated with different plant extracts and rivastigmine. AD was induced using aluminum chloride- rats were given aluminum chloride for one month, and the dosage was 17mg/kg of body weight. One group was kept as control- healthy control and another group as AD-induced. Rivastigmine was given to group 3. Group 4 and 5 were treated with extracts of a medicinal plant- Salvia triloba; and group 6 and 7 were treated with extract made from Piper nigrum. The rats were given drug and extracts for three months. At the end of three months duration biochemical assays and histopathology was done to examine the changes happened to t he brains. The following things were checked for in serum: malondialdehyde, total antioxidant capacity and nitric oxide, and level of superoxide dismutase were checked in erythrocytes. Acetylcholine and acetylcholine esterase levels were checked in brain samples and another group of brain samples were given for histopathology. From the results, the rats which were treated with Piper nigrum extract and rivastigmine showed increase in brain Ach, and serum TAC and SOD; and a significant decrease in brain AchE, and serum MDA and NO. The rats which were treated with extract of Salvia triloba showed even better result in subduing the oxidative stress to a certain limit. Antioxidant capacity of plants was used to bring down the effects of oxidative stress in brain. Here, the effect of the extract made from Boswellia serrata is compared with rivastigmine on rats with AD- induced by oral administration of aluminum chloride. Ninety male rats were used in the study. They were made into nine groups. Group 1 was kept as healthy control, group 2 was given with aluminum chloride for four weeks, and group 3 was treated with rivastigmine, group 4 and 5 were treated with two different concentrations of plant extract made from Boswellia serrata. Groups 3 to 5 were treated with a combination of aluminum chloride and other things to check the ability of extract and drugs to protect the brain from the stress. Group 6 was given with water after inducing AD. Group 7 was given with rivastigmine, and group 8 and 9 were given with two different concentrations of plant extract- this was done for twelve weeks. Cognitive tests were done at the beginning of each new stage o f the study. At the end of the duration of the study, the brain samples were subjected to biochemical assays and histopathology. From the results, B.serrata has significant ability to reduce the oxidative stress in brain, and higher dose if the extract showed better effect- bringing down the severity of oxidative stress damage. Bacopa monnieri is another plant used to trim the effects of AD. This plant is used since ancient times for improving intelligence, and in this study its ability to protect against AD is checked. Alcoholic extracts of the plant was made for the study. AD was induced using ethylcholine aziridinium ion (AF64A)- administered intracerebroventricular way bilaterally. Plant extract was given to the rats two weeks before and one week after the administration of AF64A. rats were subjected to cognitive tests. Rats treated with the plant extract cleared the tests in less time. Histopathology results showed, low dose of the plant extract brought down the degree of damage in brain- reduction of neurons density. Low dose showed better result compared to the medium and high dose. The study has not revealed the mechanism of action of the plant extract, but it showed the scope for a further study on the same. Targeted drug delivery to brain in case of Alzheimer’s disease is more complex process due to many factors like blood brain barrier and actions of plasma proteins. But nanoparticles are used for targeted drug delivery, and this is again affected by physiochemical properties of Nanoparticles in different surfactants, stability of nanoparticles and organic coating or capping agent on nanoparticles. Blood brain barrier is a homeostatic defense mechanism used by brain to screen out pathogens and unwanted materials from entering brain. The barrier screens the solutes biochemically, physicochemically and structurally at the periphery. There are times when blood brain barrier breaks down due to certain infections or due to any physical reason, and this makes it skew from its usual nature- highly selectively permeable. Studies have been conducted to find how nanoparticles are treated at blood brain barrier. In a study, nanoparticles were made by warm microemulsion precursors, and the nanoparticles were radiolabelled by entrapment. Then an in situ study was conducted to check how nanoparticles cross the blood brain barrier. From the study it was concluded that endocytosis or transcytosis as possible mechanism for the transport across the barrier- more studies are yet to be conducted. Studies have shown that clioquinol- a quinoline derivative- can solubilize amyloid ÃŽ ² plaques in vitro and this could prevent accumulation of amyloid ÃŽ ² plaques in Alzheimer’s disease transgenic mice- an in vivo study. Clioquinol has shown its ability to dissolve plaques which are induced by Zn and Cu ions- NMR studies have shown that clioquinol can remove bound Cu ions from amyloid ÃŽ ² plaques. The study conducted has overlooked the toxicity part of clioquinol- though clioquinol has many side effects attached to it at high doses. It has shown in the later part of the study that clioquinol coupled with nanoparticles could easily cross the blood brain barrier- higher degre e of uptake by brain. So, clioquinol-nanoparticle delivery system is suggested to be considered as one among the models for treating Alzheimer’s disease by targeted drug delivery. Even though using nanoparticles are considered for drug delivery, there are studies showing the side effects, and doses. In a study- toxicity of silver nanoparticles- it was found that exposure to more than 125mg/kg of silver nanoparticles will lead to liver damage due to toxicity. In a study curcumin nanoparticle formulation was used to test its effect on Alzheimer’s disease in mice. Nanocurcumin was synthesized and orally given to the mice for twelve days. Memory tests were done before starting every new stage of the experiment. Results have shown that mice treated with nanocurcumin could clear the cognitive tests- significant improvements were observed.

Gender Strategies Essay

Gender strategies refer to a literary strategy and a manner of analyzing literary works. As a strategy, gender strategies pertain to the infusion of differing gender expectations and roles given a patriarchal social context. Men hold a higher position relative to women. This also extends to hints of feminism with literary works showing the efforts made by women to attain defy the patriarchal system and achieve equal status with men or women characters placed in positions of power. As an analytical tool, gender strategies refer to the differentiation between masculine and feminine character traits. The differences in the perspectives of men and women develop with the influence of culture. This also considers the way that the image of women in the literary work captures the difficulties in living in a patriarchal society and the challenges to attain equality. Another line of analysis is by expanding literary themes beyond the male and female to consider the homosexual perspective represented by literary works. (Meyer, 2002) Gender strategies worked in the play ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ (Shakespeare, 1997). Patriarchal belief and male dominance is one defining theme of the play. Egeus used the law compelling daughters to marry the man chosen by their fathers with refusal punishable by death to force Hermia, his daughter, to marry Demetrius, the man that Egeus wants his daughter to marry. There was also a hint of feminism, with Hermia defying her father and the law by eloping with Lysander. Titania, the queen of the fairies, also holds an equal position with Oberon, the king of fairies by refusing to agree to make her Indian changeling a knight of Oberon. In analyzing the play, the patriarchy experienced by the characters reflects on the Athenian culture that gives men higher status than women do. The male characters, Egeus and Oberon, make the decision and enforce these decisions on the women characters. The women characters, Hermia and even the fairy queen Titania, suffered difficulties in resisting the dominant male characters. References Meyer, M. (2002). The Bedford introduction to literature (6th ed. ). New York: St. Martin’s Press. Shakespeare, W. (1997). A midsummer night’s dream. In G. Blakemore-Evans & J. J. M. Tobin (Eds. ), The riverside Shakespeare (pp. 256-283). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Fashion 1890-1900

FEMALE EVENING WEAR COSTUME IN 1890- 1900 GAY/ NAUGTY NINTEIS REASERCH SEMINAR IN THE HISTORY OF COSTUME Table of contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦1 History and Events†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1 Art and Architecture†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Fashion in the 1890s†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦22 â€Å"Humanity takes itself too seriously. It is the world's original sin. If the cave-man had known how to laugh, History would have been different. † Oscar Wilde Introduction: 1890s-1900 England was under the reign of Queen Victoria and the industrial revolution was at its prime.There was a wea lthy middle class emerging, and new artistic movements began developing. The 1890s was referred to by a number of names for example in America it was known as the ‘Gay nineties’ as opposed to Britain where it was known as the ‘Naughty nineties’ or the ‘Gilded age’. At this time Britain was the strongest, most stable empire in the world and these years were quiet and peaceful as there was hardly any conflict. This scenario encouraged the speed of the industrial revolution, which encouraged economic growth.The Bourgeoisie were accumulating wealth, which enabled them to have more spare time for social and recreational interests. In this paper I will be reviewing the events, culture and clothing from the 90s, which was under Queen Victoria’s reign within the context of world history, art, politics, economics and social change. Social, political and the industrial changes influenced the clothing of the decade, and brought forth a dramatic exp losion in design of women’s clothing which eventually influenced the future fashion. Historical background of 1890-1900 The Victorian age was drawing to a close.Queen Victoria had reigned since 1837, and during that period Britain had become the most important global force based on her supreme naval power. Since the death of her beloved husband Albert, Victoria had become a virtual recluse, dressing totally in black for the rest of her life. When Victoria died she left behind an industrial country with a developed network. (a. 1) Conquering colonies During the Victorian period, Britain’s ambition was to extend its control of areas beyond the seas, mainly in establishing colonies and taking over areas in Africa, Asia and the Far East.The British Empire took control of East Africa, intending to create unity and territorial contiguity between the colonies in Southern Africa. (a. 2) Queen Victoria put an emphasis on ethics and values, which reflected both on society and Go vernment. She had a lack of tolerance for crime, which filtered to other countries outside of the UK due to the influence of the British Empire abroad. Britain in the 1890’s was the most powerful force in the world. Although Britain had been at war for much of the Victorian era, industry and economy had continued to grow, and the 90’s was considerably quieter which only accentuated the growth.It was a decade of reconciliation and peace in Europe. Meanwhile over ‘the pond’, the USA was beginning to step forward in the international arena as a new powerful leader. Despite a severe economic crisis (1893- 1897), and with a new Republican President, McKinley, the US went to war against Spain concerning the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico in 1898. Industrial Advancement The last decade of the 19th century marked one of the most rapid developments of human history. This industrial revolution dramatically changed the way of life.At the beginning of the 19th cen tury people depended on their own physical strength, and the use of animal power, which helped them with transport and farming and communication. However with the development of industrial machinery, mass production became the accepted mode. Mass production also resulted in the improvement of the quality of food people ate. Food was distributed quicker thanks to improvements in transportation, and therefore arrived fresh, which in turn improved the health of the people.Thanks to both advancements in industry and medicine, general health improved, meaning people were fit and well to achieve greater goals inducing a huge advance in economic development, social life, the arts and science. Since the development of industry there were more jobs available, and a newly formed middle class began to emerge, which bridged the existing gap between the rich and the poor. This, in turn, made the members of the higher bourgeoisie feel uneasy about their position in society, and they were constant ly searching for new ways to uphold and improve their status.A major way that they achieved this was by the changes that were made in the world of fashion at these times. (Phillippe, P. 1981. P8) People started to look for a different life other than plowing fields and working in agriculture. They started to move to the cities to work in factories and shops, giving them high hopes for something better than they had previously. Railroads, telephones, bicycles and the beginning of the development of the car encouraged people to enjoy life and mingle and socialize, something that was previously only reserved for the higher class.They found entertainment outside the home by going to picnics, fairs, parks and restaurants. Thanks to electricity, meaning light in the evenings, nightlife also became popular. Although life seemed brighter for most of the 90s it was far from easy. Salaries were low, hours were long and work was hard. Nevertheless, people enjoyed living beyond their basic need s and were willing to find the time and the money to enjoy the richer things in life. As a result fashion, once only affordable to the wealthy, also became an interest to the middle classes and in turn more affordable.Women’s Rights  ¬Ã‚ ¬The Victorian period had seen a rise in the number of gender equality laws being passed and the advancement of the rights of women was in the air. It would not be long before they would win the right to vote, however even without suffrage, the rights of women in the 90’s were advancing. More and more women were entering into the workforce than before. In turn, women were also becoming active in areas once primarily only the territory of men. They started to play sports, ride bikes which can explain how their fashion started to change so dramatically.It is during this time that the trouser, known as â€Å"bloomers†, arose. Prior to this time trousers were not acceptable. Many women had adopted the tailored suit, which was a re flection of the change of the status of woman. (We will go further into this point later in the essay. ) Technology and Science: The Industrial Revolution brought many new inventions. The change in basic fundamentals led to a tremendous amount of development and speed of work, Iron, chemicals and recently available electricity helped production enterprises grow, providing raw materials which were used, by the brand new car and aviation industries.Communication across the nation was increased by the use of the telegraph and telephone, while railways expanded hugely. There was also a science revolution occurring at the same time, which complimented the advancement in industry with regards to â€Å"new science† including, chemicals and electricity. In addition there was a huge advancement in medicine, including the production of X-Rays by Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen (a. 3) in 1895 and the development of aspirin by the German chemist Felix Hoffmann. Art and Arcitecture:The end of the 19th century was a period of great prosperity and even complacency. In England in particular, critics and artists were unhappy about the general decline in the craftsmanship caused by the industrial revolution, and hated the very sight of cheap and tardy machine-made imitations of ornaments. Artists dreamed to reform the arts and crafts, and â€Å"they longed for a new art† (E. H. GOMBRICH) based on a new feeling for design and possibilities inherent in each material. Art Nouveau was created. It is through art, and through art only, that we can realize our perfection. † Oscar wilde. Impressionism The Impressionist movement, which appeared in Paris in 1867, and continued till the late 19th century, was created by Edouard Manet, and other various artists. The artistic movement looked for a way to discover and represent nature as we see it. They decided that if they would trust their eyes and not their set ideas of what things ought to look like according to academic rules , they would make the most stimulating discoveries.The well-known painting, Sunrise, painted by Claude Monet was displayed at a Paris art show, and because of the irregular texture, it caused one critic to call the whole exhibition impressionist, which gave the movement its name. The technique that was used was quick, broken brushstrokes, light, vibrant colours and bright, contrasting colours. (E. H. Gombrich p. 392) (a4) fashion was extremely influenced by this movement, bright and vibrant colours and the contrasted colours were used in many different garments. Art nouveauIn the early 90s, a new mass artistic point of view developed in Europe. Based on mood, feeling and abstract form, it was the first European artistic movement since the rococo. Art nouveau was based on abstract and swerving curve shapes. The movement had a very visual language, which reflected in all different areas of design for example furniture, architecture, books, illustration, painting and clothing. The arti sts of this movement took inspiration from nature with its flowing symmetric and organic elements. They studied the roots, branches and other different forms of nature.Primarily using nature and harmonization of the environment, they also were inspired by Japanese design and other past inspirations styles such as gothic, rococo and arts and craft style which also incorporated floral elements. We can see a lot of these elements in the fashion of the time for example, Floral embroidery, curvy lines and shapes. Aubrey Beardsley rose to immediate fame all over Europe with his sophisticated black and white illustrations. In France it was the flowers of Degas and Toulouse Lautrec which applied a similar economy of means to the new art of the poster.Toulouse Lautrec had learned from Japanese prints just how much more striking a picture could become if modeling and other details were sacrificed (E. H. Gombrich p 406) (a. 5). The success of art nouvea ¬u had taken hold of architects and de signers who were tired of the traditional routines they had been taught, Architects now were experimenting with new types of materials and new types of ornaments. Art nouveau style buildings first appeared in Brussels, however construction sites were relatively small and the laws of the city were harsh with building regulations.For example construction of balconies and rooms were monitored, and architects had to work within these regulations. One of the first houses designed from nouveau design was the Maison Tassel in Brussels. Its highly innovative plan and its ground breaking use of materials and decoration show the characteristics of Art Nouveau. (a. 6) Other artists that belonged to this movement were Gustav Klemt, and Alphonse Mucha.  ¬Ã‚ ¬ Symbolism In the late 19th-century there was another movement called symbolism, which expressed mystical or abstract ideas through the symbolic use of images.It mainly developed in Europe and was a reaction to impressionism (1867-1886 one of the major and most significant arts based on experience of colour, sunlight, shadows and with visible brush strokes).  ¬Based on the artistic movement romanticism, this style art was made of shapes and images. Symbolist painters believed that art should reflect an emotion or idea rather than represent the natural world. They felt that the symbolic value or meaning of a work of art stemmed from the recreation of emotional experiences in the viewer through colour, line, and composition.In painting, Symbolism represents a synthesis of form and feeling, of reality and the artist's inner subjectivity. Artists from the symbolism movement are Paul Gauguin, Gustav klimt, Edvard Munch and Gustave Moreau. (a. 7) Oscar Wilde (1854 – 1900) In the late 19th century Britain finally found the time to embrace literature and poetry. Oscar Wilde became the most popular play writer of his day writing many short stories, plays and poems that had a lot to do with society, fashion, and art a t the time. He was a major influence in society and some people even said he was born before his time. (Holland, v. p9) (a. ) â€Å" I am the only person in the world I should like to know thoroughly. † Oscar Wilde. Costumes of 1890 – 1900’s Introduction The fashions of the 19th century can explain a lot about the era of the time with regards to society and the situation it was in. With the introduction of new inventions such as machinery and most importantly the sewing machine, fashions were able to evolve and progress. This century shows many reforms in fashions for women some more successful than others. These clothing types did not purely change with regards to the shape of the silhouette, but also the fabrics and colours being used were evolving too.The clothing and designs for women took priority at these times over men’s fashions. Although men’s fashions were not involved in great change, Europe saw clothing for men designed to suit their â €˜passion for riding’. (Brooke, I. ) Materials in the 1890’s went through a change, because of the availability of new machinery it was possible to experiment and use different materials for different garments. Suits were made of either tweed or stiff cloth whereas dresses were made from silk and satin type materials. Decoration such as bows, lace, jabot and frilling became a major theme for this period of time. (Waugh, N. 1968. 231) Another benefit of the new machinery was the introduction of Haute Couture which was made by a number of fashion houses such as, Charles Fredrick Worth and Jacques Doucet. (DeMarly, D. 1980. ) (a. 9) Change in costume The 1890’s saw a major change in the silhouette of women. The hourglass shape was introduced in the late 19th century. The most dramatic feature of the change in costume in this period of time was the exaggerated waistline, which was made so tiny that it is seen as the most minute waist in history. It became so smal l that it gave the impression that the woman’s figure was split into two parts that met in the middle.The term given to the figure of this time was the â€Å"Wasp Waist† (a. 10). The shape consisted of a ballooning sleeve(a. 11), slim waist and widened skirt with the main aim to accentuate the womanly figure (Laver, J. 1929. P82). The sharp contrast in shapes was a deliberate ploy to make the waist seem smaller than it actually was. Previous to the 1890’s, gowns were seen as much simpler in design and instead of using the idea of a fuller skirt the emphasis was put on the sleeves. The bigger sleeves came into place in the middle of the decade. This idea of voluminous sleeves led to a further change in clothing, more specifically the outerwear.Coats were of great difficulty when it came to putting them on over the exaggerated sleeves therefore capes and shawls came in place of the typical coat style (a. 12). They were made in a variety of lengths, shapes and coll ars (Boucher, F. ). Towards the end of the century the silhouette reverted back to a more natural shape and the â€Å"Wasp Waist† gradually changed into the â€Å"S Shape†. Sleeves became tight with a slight puff at the shoulder. Eveningwear tended to include â€Å"small bouffant sleeves† (Boucher, F. ), whereas daywear portrayed â€Å"semi gigot sleeves† (Boucher, F).The era of the 1890’s was known in the United States as the era of the ‘Gibson Girl’ (a. 13). The Gibson Girl was a modern portrayal of the ideal women of the time, created by the artist Charles Dana Gibson. This girl was known as the ‘new woman’ of the time. This ideal woman was not purely based on her looks, but for the first time on her personality and abilities too. The Gibson Girl was seen as a symbol of thousands of American women. She was tall and petite, with a heavier bosom and fuller hips and bottom. This figure was achieved by the use of a ‘S wan Bill Corset’.This was the first time the idea of a corset was used to give a woman an ‘S Curve’ figure, which was not generally seen until the 1900’s. However, this perfect figure was not all the ideal woman in America had to have. The Gibson Girl not only portrayed beauty, but also a strong personality where education was just as important as the way she looked. Having said that, although education was becoming increasingly more common for the new woman, the idea of women being as equal to men when it came to decisions being made in society had not yet been accepted (Gordon, L.D. 1987. P211). Fashions of the time Costumes in the nineteenth century, as in most eras inevitably changed and evolved. Garments came in and out of fashion and were constantly being evolved and adapted. Different layers of clothing increased the number of changes to the ideal woman’s silhouette. In addition to this, society was adapting its attire to the increase in extr a and new activities. For every occasion an expected costume was worn. For each event or occasion at the different times of the day and season there were various acceptable outfits.With the explosion of bourgeoisie throughout Europe more and more women of different social classes were wanting to feel accepted into different societies by having a number of alternative costumes for each individual occasion. The creation of dresses such as, ‘tea dresses’ which were worn predominantly for afternoon teas with a group of women, were extremely common, as well as ‘house dresses’ which also became a staple part of a higher class woman’s wardrobe. (Phillippe. P. 1981. P8) Skirts This era saw the rise of the fuller and more extravagant skirts.This rise was due to the crinolines and the bustles from the previous decade, which had gradually been reduced by the time this decade arrived. The skirt was fairly straight at the front whereas generally in evening wear, the back consisted of a more exaggerated train with a larger amount of material being used to make it. This shape created an almost ‘flower shape’ skirt and because of the style and shape of the skirt it was custom for women to hold the train with one hand as they walked which revealed the petticoats frills that was made out of taffeta or lace.In the middle of the decade the sleeves widened this can be reflected to the skirt that also went through this adaptation. Due to this change it aided the portrayal of a smaller waist. Compared to the last decade these skirts were less decorative than the previous ones as well as being easier to wear in order for women to be able to partake in the newer activities of the time. This ease of skirts enabled women to follow the changes of women of the period of time. Towards the end of the decade the skirts became tighter around the thigh and narrow along the legs. (a. 4) Tailored Suits The tailored suit had been introduced to men man y years prior to the 1890’s however by the time the Industrial Revolution had begun more and more women had become increasingly more in need of alternate costumes for the different and newly available jobs to them. In addition, with the introduction of new machinery for the first time ready-made shirts, blouses, skirts and tailored jackets were easily available from a shop shelf, unlike previously where every garment was tailor made. This modernized idea made it available to almost all classes of women (Renrolds, C. 989. p45) The suit was seen as a suitable and appropriate outfit for any daytime activity and any time of year. The three pieced tailored suit, which included a skirt, jacket and shirt-blouse was first introduced and worn by women in England (a. 15). The shirt-blouse influenced the bodice of the dresses. The suit was created by a â€Å"very tight jacket – bodice, with small basques forming a postilion at the back, and a double skirt, the upper part of whic h was slightly caught up. † (Boucher, F. 1987. P401). The BlousePrevious to these times shirts were seen as a very masculine piece of clothing, however with the changes of the women’s role in society it had become more acceptable and common for women to wear their own version of the male shirt, known as the ‘blouse’ (a. 16). The blouse was fully feminine with excessive decoration made from lace, high collars, sleeves and if the blouse was a more simple style it would often be worn with a male-styled necktie. It was seen as an extremely important fashion statement of the time, and was mostly made from light coloured fabric in contrast to the darker coloured skirts and jackets.Bloomers The first bloomers were introduced in 1849 by the renowned feminist Mrs. Amelia Jenks Bloomer. She created them as a solution to the problem for the unladylike issues with women riding on penny-farthings (bicycles) however the idea did not catch on. Although a year after Amelia Bloomer’s death in 1894 her ideas began to become increasingly more popular. (Gersheim, A. 1963. p80) Bicycling had become one of the most popular activities for women to take part in. This in turn resulted in yet another important costume for which women needed.The costume included the newly divided skirt or knickerbockers (baggy trousers), which came down to just over the heel. This enabled the women to have more freedom in partaking of their new sport (a. 17) (a. 18). The undergarments Although clothing was becoming more masculine, undergarments were becoming increasing more popular for women. Undergarments were starting to resemble more of today’s underclothing with the introduction of new materials such as lace, taffeta, silk and lavish colourful ribbons. Even though these undergarments were invisible they were seen as a luxury to women, and they were considered particularly erotic.The corset as in previous decades was an important factor of women’s costum e, however it was now worn over the petticoat and was made into a more shortened form with tighter lacing. The corset was boned and aimed to create the desired ‘Wasp Waist’(a. 19). The petticoat also took an evolutionary change in these times, as they were made from coloured silk and pleated or trimmed with lace. In 1891, the standard petticoat was made with ‘drawing strings’ behind and trimmed with one or two frills of scalloped embroidery (a. 20). Drawers were a type of under trouser that was as wide as the petticoat (a. 1). They were made with frills and were and often in different colours. In addition an alternative style was produced in the style of an overall. However it was only worn occasionally depending on the over-garments being worn. (Cunnington, C. W. 1992. p196) Accessories A huge emphasis of this era was accessories, more specifically, the hat which was known for its excessive decoration. Fur, velvet, ribbons and flowers were just a few of th e different decorations that could be seen on hats at this time. It was a sign of the new independent woman of the time.Hats came in all shapes and sizes, and as with clothing there were different styles for different occasions (a. 22). Gloves were also vital accessory at this time too. It was especially seen as proper etiquette to wear long gloves to the elbow in the evenings (a. 23) as well as a fur muff (a. 24), whereas during the day more casual gloves were worn made of materials such as leather. Other accessories seen at these times were fur or feather scarves as well as sun umbrellas made from lace. Handbags were also seen at these times however they were not used for the same purposes as we use them today.They were extremely small and either knitted or embroidered. Shoes were often seen in a number of styles 9(a. 25). Leather ankle boots, with a small round heel, were worn during the day and were accessorized with buttons, laces or elastic Evening shoes were in the form of ba llerina pumps, and were embroidered or with ribbons around the ankle. Eveningwear A big part of costumes in the 19th century was the eveningwear. Eveningwear was extravagant from the dress to the accessories. The dresses consisted of a lower bodice than the daytime wear, They were cut in a square V shape, rounded V or a round shape neck(a. 6). Dresses also could be seen with shoulder straps, and over exaggerated sleeves could be seen during the middle of this decade. However towards the end of the decade sleeves became tighter fitting. Trains were not so common in ball gown dresses however, but for other evening dress styles they were commonly seen(a. 27). evening gowns were genaraly made from velvet, muslin, satin. They were also embroidered. (a28) Accessories that could be seen in the evenings were jewels, diamonds, tiaras, hair ornaments, broaches, necklaces and fans (a. 29. 30). This added o the effect of luxury to any outfit. Hairstyles in the evening were usually pinned up int o a bun shape; waves and curs were also common. (Waugh, N. 1968. P229) Conclusion This era can be seen as a major influence to the history of clothing and accessories. The changes of this decade can be seen to be an influence not only on these times but also today’s fashions too (a. 31,32). Pieces of clothing such as puff sleeves and high waited skirts have slowly crept back into our wardrobes along with muffs and smaller evening bags, which have become one of the 21st century’s staple items for women.The influence of the industrial revolution brought about many changes to styles and materials. It aided the creation of ‘off the shelf’ clothing and was a symbol for diversity between different classes of people. For the first time the middle class society were able to keep up to date with the latest trends not just in the evening but also whilst they worked. â€Å"Fashion is a form of ugliness so intolerable that we have to alter it every six months. † Oscar Wilde Appendix 1. Queen Victoria, c. 1890. 2. Map of british Empire in 1890. 3. Mrs.Rontgen's hand, the first X-ray picture of the human body ever taken. photos courtesy of NASA 4. claude monet Impression, soleil levant 1872 5. Alphonse Mucha-F. Champenois Imprimeur-Editeur, lithograph, 1897. 6. Stairway of Tassel House, Brussels 7. Edvard Munch The Scream 1893 8. Napoleon Sarony Oscar Wilde 1882 9. Jaque Doucete, womans suit costume, 1894 10. Standart Desugner 1897 April. 11. Mora-83 Rundle street Adelaide at Port Adelaide 1895 12. Delineator, November 1897 13. circa, Gibson Girl, 1900 14. Delineator, Afternoon Dress, October 1896 15.Charlles Frederick Worth, walking suit, 1895 16 Illistration of the Gibson Girl wearing The Blouse 17. Harper's Bazar, April 1894 18. T. de Thulatrup, New York 1890s 19. 20. Matropoline museum, New York 1890’s 21. Harper’s Bazar, November 1892 22. Standart Designer, April 1898 23 Delineator, 1898 24. Harper’s Bazar November 1893 25. Metropoline Museum New York 1989 26. harper’s Bezar Febuary 1894 27. Harper’s Bazar, 1894 28. Mertopolin Museum, Fabrics from the 1890s 29. Harper’s Bazar January1897 30. John Singer Sargent, Ada Rehan, 1894 31. Dolce & Gabbana w/f , 09 32. Alexander McQueen, s/s 2007Bibliography  · Brook, Iris. English Costume of the Nineteenth Century, London 1929  · Renolds, Caroline. New York Fashion. The Evolution of American Style. Milbank NY 1039  · Hansen, Henry Harold. Costume Cavalcade. London 1954  · Boucher, Francois. 20,000 Years of Fashion. The History of Costume and Personal Adornment. 1987 NY  · Blum, Stella. Paris Fashion of the 1890’s. NY 1989  · Perrot, Phillippe. Fashion of the Bourgeoisie. Preston University Press 1981  · James Laver. English Costume of the Nineteenth Century (1929). A & C Black Ltd.  · Gersheim, Alison. Victorian and Edwardian Fashion. 1963 NY  ·Liltek C.Cunnington Phyllis. The History of Underclothes. New York, Dover Publication Inc. 1992  ·Buck, Anne. Victorian Costume and Costume Accessories. Quite Specific Media Group 1997  · Waugh, Norah. The Cut of Women’s Clothes. 1600-1930 (1968) University of Michigan  · DeMarly, Diana. The History of Haute Couture 1850-1950. London Bastford Ltd. 1980  ·Gordon, D. Lyne. The Gibson Girl Goes to College. University of Rochester, John Hopkins University Press Vol. 39, No2, 1987  · E. H. Gombrich. The Story of Art. The Phaldon Press, London 1980  ·Vyvyan Holland. The Complete Works of Oscar Wilde. London and Glasgow 1984

Womens Liberation Movement †Definition and Overview

Women's Liberation Movement - Definition and Overview The womens liberation movement was a collective struggle for equality that was most active during the late 1960s and 1970s. It sought to free women from oppression and male supremacy. The Meaning of the Name The movement consisted of womens liberation groups, advocacy, protests, consciousness-raising, feminist theory, and a variety of diverse individual and group actions on behalf of women and freedom. The term was created as a parallel to other liberation and freedom movements of the time. The root of the idea was a rebellion against colonial powers or a repressive national government to win independence for a national group and to end oppression. Parts of the racial justice movement of the time had begun calling themselves the  black liberation. The term liberation resonates not just with independence from oppression and male supremacy for individual women, but with solidarity among women seeking independence and ending oppression for women collectively. It was often held in contrast to individualistic feminism. The individuals and groups were loosely tied together by common ideas, although there were also significant differences between groups and conflicts within the movement. The term womens liberation movement is often used synonymously with womens movement or second wave feminism, although there were actually many different types of feminist groups. Even within the womens liberation movement, womens groups held differing beliefs about organizing tactics and whether working within the patriarchal establishment could effectively bring about the desired change. Not Womens Lib The term womens lib was used largely by those opposing the movement as a way of minimizing, belittling, and making a joke of it. Womens Liberation vs. Radical Feminism   The womens liberation movement is also sometimes seen as being synonymous with radical feminism  because both were concerned with freeing members of society from oppressive social structure. Both have sometimes been characterized as a threat to men, particularly when the movements use rhetoric about struggle and revolution. However, feminist theorists overall are actually concerned with how society can eliminate unfair sex roles. There is more to womens liberation than the anti-feminist fantasy that feminists are women who want to eliminate men. The desire for freedom from the oppressive social structure in many womens liberation groups led to internal struggles with structure and leadership. The idea of full equality and partnership being expressed in a lack of structure is credited by many with the weakening power and influence of the movement. It  led to later self-examination and further experimentation with leadership and participation models of organization. Putting Womens Liberation in Context The connection with a black liberation movement is significant because many of those involved in creating the womens liberation movement had been active in the civil rights movement and the growing black power and black liberation movements. They had experienced disempowerment and oppression there  as women. The rap group as a strategy for consciousness within the black liberation movement evolved into consciousness-raising groups within the womens liberation movement. The  Combahee River Collective  formed around the intersection of the two movements in the 1970s.   Many feminists and historians trace the roots of the womens liberation movement to the New Left and the civil rights movement of the 1950s and early 1960s. Women who worked in those movements often found that they were not treated equally, even within liberal or radical groups that claimed to fight for freedom and equality. Feminists of the 1960s had something in common with feminists of the 19th century in this respect: Early womens rights activists such as Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were inspired to organize for womens rights after being excluded from mens anti-slavery societies and abolitionist meetings. Writing About the Womens Liberation Movement Women have written fiction, non-fiction, and poetry about ideas of the 1960s and 1970s womens liberation movement. A few of these feminist writers were  Frances M. Beal, Simone de Beauvoir, Shulamith Firestone, Carol Hanisch, Audre Lorde, Kate Millett, Robin Morgan, Marge Piercy, Adrienne Rich, and Gloria Steinem. In her classic essay on womens liberation, Jo Freeman observed the tension between the Liberation Ethic and the Equality Ethic, To seek only equality, given the current male bias of the social values, is to assume that women want to be like men or that men are worth emulating...  It is just as dangerous to fall into the trap of seeking liberation without due concern for equality. On the challenge of radicalism versus reformism creating tension within the womens movement, Freeman goes on to say, This is a situation the politicos frequently found themselves in during the early days of the movement. They found repugnant the possibility of pursuing reformist issues which might be achieved without altering the basic nature of the system, and thus, they felt, only strengthen the system. However, their search for sufficiently radical action and/or issue came to naught and they found themselves unable to do anything out of fear that it might be counterrevolutionary. Inactive revolutionaries are a good deal more innocuous than active reformists.

Comparing Christian Fundamentalism And Hindu Fundamentalism Religion Essays

Comparing Christian Fundamentalism And Hindu Fundamentalism Religion Essays Comparing Christian Fundamentalism And Hindu Fundamentalism Religion Essay Comparing Christian Fundamentalism And Hindu Fundamentalism Religion Essay Introduction Originally, the term fundamentalism was non meant and understood the manner it is understood in the modern-day universe. Edward Farley recounts that it was ab initio used to depict a motion among conservative Protestant Christians in the United States who, in the first portion of the 20th century, smartly and publically defended scriptural inerrancy against historical unfavorable judgment and scriptural geology and cosmology against the theory of development. [ 1 ]Further, J. I. Packer is of the sentiment that Evangelicals [ US ] , who banded themselves together to support their religion against the liberalism [ rejection of the virgin birth and deity of Christ, infallacy of the Bible and others ] , were known as fundamentalists. However, British Evangelicals strongly rejected being called fundamentalists, reasoning that It is no disrepute to Christian work forces to be committed to the defence of the basicss. [ 2 ]All these definitions have now become things of the yesteryear . The original significance of the term fundamentalism was different, nevertheless it has now acquired a negative intension as it is frequently associated with the violent and destructive looks of the spiritual extremists in this modern-day universe. Therefore, fundamentalism is no longer used to depict conservative Protestant Christians or a peculiar faith and its disciples ; instead it is presently used to depict any stiff attitude that unleashes aggressive, violent, and destructive looks. It has become a codification word for narrow, bigoted, anti-intellectual, lacking learned civilization and anti-Semitic, [ 3 ]and a equivalent word for obscurantism. [ 4 ]Fundamentalism so is a phenomenon in the pluralistic universe we live in and it is a combined force of attitude and look with a spiritual influence: the attitude that stings and look that is violent and destructive in any signifier. Using this definition, this paper will compare the Hindu and the Christian fundamenta lism: history, root causes, some expressions/impacts, and divinity found among the disciples. Finally, the paper will be concluded with a missiological review and a final note. Points of Comparison Before come ining into a comparing of the two spiritual fundamentalism, I want to emphasize one time once more on the working definition of this paper by raising a inquiry, what is fundamentalism, and what is non? Fundamentalism harmonizing to me is neither a mere defence of one s ain religion nor retaining the basicss of one s religion. It is both the lava, and the eruption of that lava. The lava beneath the land erupts through the vent upseting the environing environment. This volcanic eruption is fundamentalism. In other words, fundamentalism in my sentiment is the negative attitude towards others, judging others by the criterions of one s ain spiritual dogmas climaxing in force and coercion. Therefore, in this paper as I discuss about Hindu and Christian fundamentalism, I shall non intend to state that all Christians or all Hindus are fundamentalists. The term fundamentalism is a modern term and traveling back every bit early as the fourth century speaking about fundamentalism contradicts Francis Glasson s sentiment that it is incorrect to state, Christian Church was fundamentalist until the rise of scriptural surveies of the past 100 yearsaˆÂ ¦ . [ 5 ]However, I shall show to you the presence of Christian fundamentalism back so on the footing of the working definition of this paper. Therefore, every bit far as Christian fundamentalism is concerned, I will take the freedom to research the Greco-Roman universe and America in footings of topographic point and the early portion of the first millenary boulder clay day of the month in footings of clip. However, in order to discourse on the Hindu fundamentalism, I shall restrict within the Indian context. Having this elucidation we shall now discourse the history of both the fundamentalism in brief. History Christian fundamentalism began in the United States after the war of 1914-18 based on rigorous attachment to traditional Orthodox tenetsaˆÂ ¦held to be cardinal to the Christian religion: opposed to liberalism and modernism. [ 6 ]It is said that by the 1940s and 1950s fundamentalism was divided into several cantonments: trusters who emphasized on Christian civilisation, people who held dispensation belief, and others.[ 7 ]On the other manus, Hindu fundamentalism had its beginning in 1870s through 1920s [ 8 ]yet which in my sentiment reached its tallness in the fortiess. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar the innovator of specifying and propagating Hindutva who wrote Hindutva with heavy mentions to the Hindu sacred books[ 9 ]and published in 1942 is responsible for the development and growing of Hindu fundamentalism. Since so Hindutva takes the Centre phase when Hindu fundamentalism is discussed. The procedure might hold been at that place, nevertheless both the Hindu and Christian fundamentalism in comparing reached the flood tide in the first half of the twentieth century which is still in continuance. We shall now discourse about the sources/roots of fundamentalism. Beginning or Root Fear of the emerging and environing forces and bitterness are the root causes of fundamentalism. As per the observation of the history mentioned above, the root causes of Christian fundamentalism were by and large the forces of liberalism and modernism that questioned the Christian dogmas. On the other manus, the root causes of Hindu fundamentalism are: ( 1 ) The past atrociousnesss unleashed by overzealous Muslims, ( 2 ) the rapid growing of the Muslim population [ around 45 crores ] in the Indian sub-continent, ( 3 ) ill will of the Muslims against idolaters/non-Muslims, ( 4 ) the intimacy of Islamic religion [ claim to be perfect ] ( 5 ) the rejection of all modern entities such as province, state, regulation of jurisprudence and citizenship, and ( 6 ) the strength of Muslim states [ more than 50 ] are some of the menaces that cause Hindu fundamentalism.[ 10 ]In the work of Arun Shourie s critic J. Kuruvachira, we see the general perceptual experience of the Hindus. The premis e is that all Christian educational establishments, societal services, infirmaries, assisting the hapless are come-ons to change over Indians.[ 11 ]As a consequence of this sort of premise, I believe that the fright and hatred develop in the head of the fundamentalists and therefore stirs them to take a step to contend against the menaces. In this connexion, fright of viing forces and choler [ due to incorrect premises sometimes ] are the root causes of both the Christian and Hindu fundamentalism. Whether we like it or non, spiritual fundamentalism has its footing in the Scriptures. Nithin Sridhar states that Christian fundamentalism is based on Genesis 12:1-3, in which Abraham is blessed so that through him and his posterities, all the peoples of the universe would be blessed and besides God s wish to idolize him in all the Earth which is expressed in the Bible.[ 12 ]Sridhar is true, for it is go oning, and likewise the Hindus base on Vedas to specify India s existent heritage, the Ramayana to discourse Hindu beliefs and patterns and to warrant an action like the physical destruction of a mosque-the Babri Masjid. [ 13 ]In this sense it is true to province that the Bibles are besides the root causes of fundamentalisms. Then how does fundamentalism is expressed? Expression and Impact Globally, everyplace, every state has become pluralistic in footings of races and faiths. Therefore, fundamentalism whether it is of Hindus or Christians has usually negative impacts upon the society for it frequently expresses itself in force: written, verbal and physical [ that hurt physical, religious, psychological, and emotional facets of the victims ] . For case, a statement like, a Hindu whose blood does non boil has H2O in his veinsaˆÂ ¦youth lived in vain [ 14 ]is an look of the negative attitude towards others and therefore it appeal to the persons who portions one s religion and political orientation to move against others who do non portion the same. Christian religion Today, May 2006 reported that a outstanding Hindu activist was eager to pay $ 26,000 for the archbishop s head on a home base [ 15 ]in Rajasthan. On January 1937 a Professor of Philosophy from Poland, krzenski, came to Gandhiji. Krzenski told Gandhiji that Catholicism was the lone true faith, [ 16 ]recounts Arun Shourie. Had Krzenski entered into direct claim without sing the sentiment of Gandhi, Krzenski s claim was decidedly aching to Gandhi. The looks cited above are from the Hindus and a Christian, and each look is violent and aching in its ain manner. Thoughtless words that are expressed are aching and more ironically it does non halt at that place , it leads towards struggle and force among the disciples of different religions/ideologies. Keeping this in head we shall now look at some of the communal public violences and inharmoniousness that occurred in our society. Vaibhav Purandare s history tells us that the Shiv Sena one of the most hawkish and controvisial political outfits of India [ 17 ]was responsible for the Bhiwandi, Jalgaon and Mahad coincident clang between the Hindus and the Muslims on the juncture of Shivaji Jayanti. The clang is said to hold begun around 7:00p.m. on 7th May 1970 and lasted till 11th May claiming more than 90 lives, 300 injured, 100 houses burned, 5,000 power looms damaged and at least 5,000 people homeless.[ 18 ]The force exerted upon the Christians minority of Orissa particularly in Kandhamal territory by the Hindu extremists is another illustration of fundamentalism. It is said that the force continued since December 24 ( 2007 ) till 2nd January ( 2008 ) killing 9 people, about 90 Churchs and 600 houses burned, and 1000s displaced.[ 19 ]In the similar manner, looking back every bit early as the fourth Century, fundamentalist nature of Christians ( though the term was non yet coined ) is found in the Greco-Roman universe, peculiarly during Augustine and Gregory the Great. David Bosch reflects that Christian attitude towards the people of other religions was really sarcastic. Non-believers were understood as lost heathens, hence transition to the Catholic Church was forced. Coercive steps were promoted, the provincials were burdened with rent, free work forces were jailed and slaves were disciplined by crushing and anguish[ 20 ]warranting the actions in the name of supplying the persons the chance to fly ageless damnationaˆÂ ¦for the non-believers good. [ 21 ]The devastations, violent deaths and anguish are the commonalty of both the Hindu and Christian fundamentalism. The Crusades which took topographic point during the ten percent, eleventh, and twelve centuries in the history of Christendom is another illustration of negative look. It is said that those wars were undertaken for presenting the Holy Land from the MahommedansaˆÂ ¦ [ 22 ]The premier concern of the Crusades was to be the cloaca of Christendom and run out all the strifes out of it. [ 23 ]This really statement is clear plenty that the campaigns which were under taken by Christians were really fundamentalist in nature. Therefore, the term campaign comes really close to the term Hindutva in its significance and influence. Today, Hindutva stands as a criterion to mensurate the cogency of being Hinduness and to repossess the Hindu apostates, merely as the campaigns stood as the cloaca of Christendom and to run out all the strifes out of it. So far we have discussed and compared the modern look of Hindu fundamentalism with the pre-modern Christian fundamentalism. Now, we shall turn to the modern look of Christian fundamentalism every bit good. George M. Marsden names some of the Christian fundamentalists who smartly campaigned against the forces that questioned the Christian religion. It is said that William Jennings Bryan, Billy Sunday, William B. Riley of Minneapolis, and Frank Norris of Texas laced their messages with political dictums, having nationalism and prohibition and assailing Marxism, socialism, theory of evolution and Catholicism. [ 24 ]It is besides said that by the name Eric Rudolph is responsible for bombing at the Olympics and the blast in Atlanta at abortion clinic. [ 25 ]The persons featured above are Christian fundamentalists in my sentiment, because they intertwined the political relations, societal, and the faith to contend against other forces which they saw as enemies of Christianity. This look r esembles the Hindu fundamentalists who exert force against the Christians minority in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh maintaining them under changeless menaces and ill will such as closing down churches or driving them from their places, one among the victims is Pastor Thanga Tryte who lost his place and his topographic point of worship in the month of May, 2010.[ 26 ]Truly fear, hatred, and force are the byproduct of Fundamentalism. How do the fundamentalists understand God? Theology Reading through the book, The Essence of Hinduism, the Vedas-revealed-scripture, which is considered as the most reliable [ 27 ]Bible of the Hindus does non hold any direct instruction about human to human and God to human relationship. The indispensable subjects of the Bible from the Old Testament to the New Testament such as love for neighbours, attention for the orphans, widows and humbleness before adult male and God are losing in the Vedas. The cardinal subject of the Vedas appears to me is the individual missive I [ adult male ] which is equated with God taking to the belief that every adult male is godly and the supreme cognition is Brahman [ God ] . [ 28 ]Therefore, the divinity of the Hindus is adult male centered which is in contrast to Christians divinity which is God centered, that human being is, but the maestro piece of His creative activity ( Gen. 1: 26-27 ) . Amartya Sen gives an history on the great heroic poem of Mahabharata, a war between two ground forcess, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. In this heroic poem, Arjuna the unbeatable warrior who belongs to the Pandavas, the royal household doubts the justification of war anticipating the effects. However, Khrishna the Godhead insists Arjuna to transport out his responsibility irrespective of the effects.[ 29 ]Thomas on the other manus provinces that Christian fundamentalists belief in the Christian triumphalism mandated in the Gospels leads to the apprehension that Christians are obliged to interpret this vision into political world through the ballot box and by act uponing the political docket of their authoritiess. [ 30 ]These two informations reveal to us that the divinity plays an of import function in determining the fundamentalists divinity. The apprehension of one s God shapes one s action and relation. On one manus, Hindus see Christians as enemies [ Kaurvas ] to be fought and disciplined, on the other manus Christians see Hindus as prisoners of wickedness who need release. We shall now come in into reflecting Christian mission in India. Missiological review Harmonizing to the U. S. Central for Mission study 2000, the per centum of Hindu population is 13.4 % and the Christian population covers 33 % of the universe s entire population.[ 31 ]The present per centum that is harmonizing to the 2000 record is said to hold decreased from 34 % of Christians harmonizing to the record of 1900.[ 32 ]Turning to the Indian context, it is said that more than 80 per centum of India s about one billion people are Hindus, while merely 2.5 per centum are Christians.[ 33 ]Sing the Christian per centum and the noise that our Christian missions make, we see the instability in between the two and that make us asked ourselves, why and what is the job? There must be something incorrect with the Christian missions! If there has been something incorrect, is it the common missions dockets that continue such as the doomed psyche, church planting, and the three self-formulas [ with good purpose ] ?[ 34 ]Or was it the failure to larn and go acquainted with the linguistic communication and civilization that led Christian missionaries to be identified by others as encroachers?[ 35 ]Is it because the innovator Missionaries had ventured out as civilization villains instead than civilization heroes?[ 36 ]Is it the noncritical attachment to the Church philosophies, its infliction on others[ 37 ]and portraying Christianity as spiritual imperialism?[ 38 ]These are the few inquiries among many that come into my head as I reflect on the phenomenon of fundamentalism. Now to reply these inquiries I would go forth the floor unfastened as I know of my restriction. However, let me to state that we all need today to look into our unity as we carry the load of sharing: the love of God by witnessing Jesus the love incarnated who lived, died and resurrected for the interest of the whole creative activity. While witnessing Jesus, it is of import to acknowledge that the way given by the Bible, and the fundamentalists way can be contradictory.[ 39 ]It is of import to acknowledge because we may be seen by the looker-ons as fundamentalists when we are non cognizant of it, and it is besides of import because God gives different way to follow at different point of clip, it was told, you shall love your neighbour [ Lev. 19: 18 ] , but now it is said, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you [ Matt. 5: 43-44 ] . Where there are faiths there are transition besides [ 40 ]hence, I suggest that peculiarly the construct of change overing the lost be avoided. However, we should concentrate on witnessing Christ through ways and agencies that do non pique our neighbours. It is impossible to close the Jesus of commiseration, mending, service, and human interestaˆÂ ¦.The higher moralit y of salvation does non annul moral consistence [ 41 ]for this ground I reflect on being mild and sober in our attack to witnessing Christ instead than violent attack of mission. May our look of religion be goaded by the love of God and understand that God does non seek to suppress instead He seeks to bless.[ 42 ]Mission certainly is to convey our joy and love for Jesus, non to bring down hate, force and agony. Decision As Jan A.B. Jongeneel introduces three constructs of missiology: the philosophical, the scientific and the theological, [ 43 ]as a pupil of missiology, I take these three constructs earnestly in my quest to understand the phenomenon of fundamentalism. Trying to come to my decision, fundamentalism as it is understood today consequences [ by and large ] due to miss of positive attitude towards life [ doctrine ] , failure to cipher effects ( Science ) and misunderstanding of God [ divinity ] . Therefore, our mission at this occasion should include: advancing the value of life, assisting people to be realistic and aware of cause and consequence, and advancing relevant and proper divinity. These three dimensions can be carried out through media, formal and insouciant interaction [ duologue ] and particularly through the spiritual and non spiritual establishments such as Churches, temples, mosques, schools or colleges, etc by prophesying and learning with unity of our bosom.

Metrics That Will Measure the Success of Event Research Paper

Metrics That Will Measure the Success of Event - Research Paper Example The study will develop the metrics if not the criteria that will determine the success or failure of an event. Success, as it is, should not be measured in terms of financial gain alone or by opinions of those who attended it since their opinion may not only be tainted but also biased towards or against the event as a whole. Success should consider the attainment of the goals of the other sectors involved in the event such as the government in meeting their tourism traffic. Another measure of success is the peaceful and accident-free conduct of the event for the agency in charge of safety and security. Success can also be measured by the food industry sector when there have been no complaint or raves have been forthcoming from the participants. In terms of the hospitality industry, success can be measured by the provisioning of rooms or accommodation and other hospitality services to guests in the most efficient manner. One of the goals therefore of the proposed study is to show how events can galvanize the objectives of the food industry, the hospitality industry, the safety, and security industry, the government specifically its strategy to increase tourism traffic if the management and organizations of the event are not only well planned but also well executed. It is hoped that all sectors such as the food industry, hospitality industry and safety and security industries involved in the execution of an event will be informed of their importance and how their contribution and non-contribution in an event can make an event a disaster or a success. To ensure that the aims and goal of this paper are achieved it is the objective of this paper to determine the monetary and social cost implication of specific events to the organizers, local culture, tourism industry and the participants themselves. The potential of events as a vehicle to harness and advertise local tourism could be a potential solution for tourist destinations that will reinvigorate if not revitali ze its tourism industry. There are instances that events are even used to highlight if not present the cultural heritage of one location.

Ford Competitors Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ford Competitors Analysis - Case Study Example Toyota is the main competitor and specializes in making simple but reliable cars. The latter also has a wider global market as compared to Ford, which mainly operates in six continents. However, Ford Company has a credit company that aims at giving financial services hence diversifying its operation. The company’s financial services earn more income as compared to the ones by Toyota. In vehicle production, Ford has an advantage over Toyota in the production of smart and electric cars (Edmonston, 2012). Ford operations have been restricted due to the government’s stringent penalties on emission standards. Toyota and General Motors have invested heavily in waste containment and hence they are able to produce more. This also gives them easier access to government funding and subsidization on raw materials. Ford has been investing in the production of smart cars including Lincoln and Ford cars, which are fairly new to the global market. This has led to the production of exc ess capacity as compared to Toyota and Honda that mostly has a ready market. Ford has produced Fiesta, which is a smart car that is developed using Ford SYNC technology. However, Chrysler has also been actively involved in the use of R&D capabilities to produce Dodge Charger and Chrysler 300 (Vlasic, 2012). The latter models compete with Lincoln and Ford cars with the new Chrysler Dodge Dart competing with EcoSport in capabilities and fuel efficiency. Chrysler is known to produce quality sports cars, which is a setback for EcoSport (Crisp, 2012). General Motors is also involved in the production of mini and electric cars also using R&D capabilities to supply its large global market position. Disparate with Ford, Toyota, and Chrysler, General Motors has a range of hybrid electric cars developed using multiple technologies. Its Opel Ampera and Chevrolet Volt are the main competitors for Lincoln and Ford cars (Vlasic, 2012).